Vivian L. VignolesEllinor OweMaja BeckerPeter Bevington SmithMatthew J. EasterbrookRupert James BrownRoberto González GutierrezNicolás DidierDiego Andrés González CarrascoMaría Paz Cadena2025-10-06201600963445, 193922220096-34451939-222210.1037/xge0000175https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?eid=2-s2.0-84976470965&doi=10.1037%2Fxge0000175&partnerID=40&md5=17487ff91eeef93bc347246ece20dc21https://gcris.yasar.edu.tr/handle/123456789/9785Markus and Kitayama's (1991) theory of independent and interdependent self-construals had a major influence on social personality and developmental psychology by highlighting the role of culture in psychological processes. However research has relied excessively on contrasts between North American and East Asian samples and commonly used self-report measures of independence and interdependence frequently fail to show predicted cultural differences. We revisited the conceptualization and measurement of independent and interdependent self-construals in 2 large-scale multinational surveys using improved methods for cross-cultural research. We developed (Study 1: N = 2924 students in 16 nations) and validated across cultures (Study 2: N = 7279 adults from 55 cultural groups in 33 nations) a new 7-dimensional model of self-reported ways of being independent or interdependent. Patterns of global variation support some of Markus and Kitayama's predictions but a simple contrast between independence and interdependence does not adequately capture the diverse models of selfhood that prevail in different world regions. Cultural groups emphasize different ways of being both independent and interdependent depending on individualism-collectivism national socioeconomic development and religious heritage. Our 7-dimensional model will allow future researchers to test more accurately the implications of cultural models of selfhood for psychological processes in diverse ecocultural contexts. © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.EnglishCulture, Independence-interdependence, Self-construals, Adolescent, Cultural Anthropology, Cultural Factor, Female, Human, Individuality, Male, Personality, Psychology, Self Concept, Student, Young Adult, Adolescent, Cross-cultural Comparison, Culture, Female, Humans, Individuality, Male, Personality, Self Concept, Students, Young Adultadolescent, cultural anthropology, cultural factor, female, human, individuality, male, personality, psychology, self concept, student, young adult, Adolescent, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Culture, Female, Humans, Individuality, Male, Personality, Self Concept, Students, Young AdultArticle